India

Architecture/Construction Techniques:

• Stupa- mound of dirt that housed sacred relics
• Acknowledged important people in the Buddhist religion
• Limitations of the stupa- no space for visitors

Great Stupa of Sanchi

Interiors - courtyards

Furniture:

• There is a lack of furniture
• People sat, ate, and slept on the floor

Current Applications:

Extra Credit:

This is a video on the Great Stupa of Sanchi

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gRTbouo3ETs

This is a video giving some tips for designing an Indian interior:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=if5--Lci9a4

Peer Review:

Haley: I like that you included both India and China together in one post. It helps to compare and contrast the two cultures.

Holli: You did a good job of including important information while also engaging the reader. I like that you compared Indian and Chinese culture throughout your blog.

China

Liang, SSu-ch'eng stated in 1984, "The architecture of China is as old and Chinese civilization. From every source of information- literary, graphic, exemplary- there is strong evidence testifying to the fact that the Chinese have always enjoyed an indigenous system of construction that has retained its principal characteristics from prehistoric times to the present day. Over the vast area from Chinese Turkistan to Japan, from Manchuria, the same system of construction could perpetuate itself for more than four thousand years over such a vast territory and still remain a living architecture, retaining its principal characteristics in spite of repeated foreign invasions - military, intellectual, and spiritual- is a phenomenon comparable only to the continuity of the civilization of which it is an integral part". The Chinese culture is the world's longest continuous civilization, lasting 4,000 years. Today China has the largest population in the world.
Architecture/Construction Techniques:

• Stupa- mound of dirt, such as a burial ground, where a more permanent structure is built over the mound. This prototype was birthed in India. The stupa came to China as Buddhism spread to that region. It acknowledged important people in the Buddhist religion. However, the limitations of the stupa include no space for visitors. The Chinese then invented the Pagoda, which is a combination of the Stupa and Chinese tower building.
• Great Wall of China- This is a fortification built of stone, brick, wood, mud, and earth. It runs along the Northern border of China. It is 5500-13,000 miles long and included watch towers.
• Interiors- Both residential and commercial buildings are based on a "courtyard" building style with a lot of emphasis on orientation, layout, and symmetry.
• Chinese furniture replaced mats and the form was light, beautiful, and stable. The bed was a very versatile piece of furniture. Chairs were made of Huali wood, lacquer, ceramic, and bamboo.

Past Examples:

Current Examples:

Extra Credit:

This is a video on the Great Wall of China:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VjlydnRqcmw

This is a video on the construction of pagodas:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W5s1vVRjBm8

Peer Review:

Emma: Your blog was very easy to read which I appreciate. You included important information but did not overload the reader with facts. 

Erin: I like that you included the fact that Chinese interiors are intricate while the furniture is simple. I think that is an important aspect to know. 

The Americas

The culture of the Americas is diverse; there are four main groups of people from this broad area. The Olmecs were the first dominate culture and resided in Southern Mexico. The Mayans-Toltecs were in Central America, the Aztecs were in Mexico, and the Incas were in Peru. In all four cultures, there were a few important cultural influences. These include, nobles and commoners, hereditary leadership, divine right, farming, and sporting events.
Religion was very important to this period. Ceremonial centers were the nuclei of Mesoamerican settlement. Temples provided spatial orientation for the towns. Pyramids were meant to stand out and represent the gods and powers of the region. They are polytheistic, meaning they believed in many gods, and they also conducted human sacrifices.
The Olmecs thrived from 2000 BC-200 BC. This was the first major civilization in Mexico. They lasted until 300 BC when they came to a sudden, violent, unknown end. They were people of the rubber country and developed hieroglyphic writing. They created the 1st calendar in the Western Hemisphere. They lived in a temple focused city and the jaguar was the symbol of their chief deity. Mesoamerican ballgame was influential at this time. They created realistic art work, the highest of which were made of jade.

• La Venta: This is the first example of a temple focused city type. The ceremony center composed of the Great pyramid of earth, ball court, smaller pyramids, burial grounds and giant stone heads.
• Art: Artwork consisted of delicate carvings of jade rock crystal and less valuable stone. They constructed ax heads, masks, and decorative objects, as well as mural paintings and pottery.
• Social: The elites lived in highly decorated homes and wore elegant jewelry and clothing. The commoners lived in "homes" made of sticks and mud. Their food sources were reliable for the commoners and they had a diverse diet. Shamans, people who believed they had a direct contact to a deity, gave advice about agriculture and periodic rain to leaders. 
• Religion: Small ceramic figurines, stone carvings, and utilitarian pots were associated with relgious beliefs. People became close to the god from bloodletting and human sacrifices. They were polytheistic, meaning they believed in multiple deities, which consisted of supernatural immoral beings.

The Theotihuacan city lasted from 250 BC-900 AD. It was named the "Place of the gods" and the city was abruptly deserted. The ceremonial center was 2 miles in length and the central spine is known as "road of the dead". The center holds the Temple of the Feathered Serpent, the Pyramid of the Sun, and the Pyramid of the Moon. Teotihuacan arts include decorative and utilitarian pottery. Decorative motifs include: birds, butterflies, flowers, and abstract signs.

The Mayans flourished for 1,800 years, from 300 BC to 1521 AD. They were destroyed by the Spanish conquest of 1519. They lived in current day Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and part of Mexico. The people of this time occupied the highlands and lowlands.

• Chicen Itza: This is a ceremonial site meaning "out of the well of the Itza'. It existed from 900 AD until the arrival of the Spanish. It is home to a four-sided pyramid called "Castillo" and it is 75' high.It houses the chacmool, a ritualistic piece of furniture, and the Jaguar throne. 

The Aztecs thrived from 1150-1520 AD. Tenochtitlan is the center capitol of the Aztec civilization. Templo Mayor consisted of two temples for the god of war and of agriculture, however, it was destroyed by the Spanish. It also had the Pyramid of the sun and mood. These pyramids were made of brick and stone. It was home to Montezuma's throne and had many floating gardens.

Through the creation of art, the Aztecs expressed their thoughts on life. Their architecture also expresses thoughts and beliefs. The Aztec civilization rivaled Rome. The population grew from 500,000 to an astounding 3 million until they were conquered by Spain in 1520.

• Chinampas: These were raised gardening beds located in a swamp or shallow lake. These may have been the most productive agricultural design ever developed by humans. Growers were able to get up to 7 harvests per year from a single bed.

The Incas lasted from1200-1572 CE. This was the largest empire in Pre-Columbia America. They are known for their architecture. They lived along the pacific coast and mountains, therefore, the climate varied throughout their region. The capitol was Cuzco. They were masters of stone cutting and are credited with the trapezoid shape.

• Machu Picchu: This is located in a seismically unstable area. It was built without mortar and was the royal estate for the Incan emperor Pachacuti. There are trapezoid shaped openings and was never discovered by the Spanish. However, it was discovered in 1911 by American professor Bingham. 

Past Examples:

Current Examples:

Extra Credit:

This is a tour of Machu Picchu:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IIKhOJr_Nf0

This is a tour of Chichen Itza:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L281OUcW-4k

Peer Review:

Becca: I really enjoyed your review of the Americas. I especially liked your extra credit you chose. The 25 facts were really helpful and interesting.

Claire: I like the fact that you gave a brief but informational summary of this period. It was very to the point which I liked.

Gothic Period

The Gothic period lasted from 1140-1500. Some world events during this time period include:

• 1163: construction begins on Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris
• 1180-1192: third crusade
• 1280: eyeglasses are invented in Italy
• 1337-1453: One Hundred Years War between the French and English
• 1347: black plague begins in Europe

Some facts about the Gothic society include:

• Paris center of the Gothic world
• Churches were the center of city life
• New rivals between city states and nations
• Competition and unity in construction of cathedrals
• Knighthood, chivalry and artisan guilds
• Black plague killed 75 million - nearly 1/3 of the population

 Some facts about Gothic religion include:

• Religious expression was the heart of design
• Popes had immense power
• Wealth and power were found in the church
• Large numbers required large worship spaces
• Relics of saints replaced with adoration of Virgin Mary (Notre Dame)

 When looking at Gothic architecture it is important to note that this period was the bridge between Romanesque to Renaissance. The Gothic period was birthed from Romanesque and they introduced the pointed arch, ribbed vault, and the flying buttress.
Cathedrals had the appearance of weightlessness with tall walls and many stained glass windows. They transcend earthly experience, and a prime example of this architecture is the Cathedral of San Denis.
The Cathedral of St. Denis is located in France and dates to 1130.  It is most well known for the choir and the nave.

The Notre Dame cathedral at Chartres was constructed form 1145-1220.

The Notre Dame cathedral at Paris was constructed form 1163-1345.

Cathedrals made their way to England 50 years after France. English cathedrals are lower and longer than the french. Tradesmen may have traveled from country to country during this time, and on their journeys they spread the Gothic style from France to England. During this time, cathedrals were erected to express devotion to God and to provide economic drivers.
The Wells Cathedral was constructed from 1174-1425.

German cathedrals were constructed from 1350-1550. They are similar to French cathedrals, however, they have larger towers.
The Regensburg Cathedral was constructed from 1273-1570.

Cathedrals in Spain are wider and have a more complex plan.
The Barcelona Cathedral was constructed form the 1300's to the 1500's.

Cathedrals in Italy utilize poly-chrome decoration.
The Siena Cathedral was constructed from 1245-1380.

Unfortunately, when looking at Gothic residential design, very few homes are still standing. We get our information about the design period form illuminated manuscripts and tapestries. There was great richness in color, materials, and decoration. The linenfold motif in furniture was very popular, as was tracery in windows. It is interesting to think that this period is coined with the invention of the cupboard.
When looking at current applications it is important to compare Gothic cathedrals to contemporary churches. It is also important to acknowledge that Gothic construction was a precursor to modern sky rises.

Extra Credit:
This video is a tour of St. Wells cathedral:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tVU8lqrnqTc
This video is a tour of the Notre Dame at Paris:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O61ng_QqC4I

Peer Review:
Anna: You did a very nice job of giving a brief overview of the Gothic period. I like that you included information about stained-glass windows.
Becca: I really like the way you delivered your information. The use of bullet points is a good way to share information but also make it easy to read through.

Islamic

Islamic design focuses primarily on the religion of Islam, hence the name. Mohammed is the figure-head of the Islamic religion. Mohammed lived from 570-632 CE. The religion streets from Africa, Europe, to Asia. There is a great variety in design according to region.
One example of Islamic design is the Great Mosque of Kairouan, built from 820-836 CE. The most famous area of this structure is the Prayer Hall of the Great Mosque. The space utilizes classic capitols with Islamic arches, an example being the horseshoe arch. This is the most famous mosque in Tunisia, North Africa.
Persian architecture stems from Istanbul, Turkey- Constantinople. A famous mosque in this area is the Mosque of Sultan Ahmed, built from 1609-1617. It is nicknamed the "Blue Mosque" and has one main dome, six minarets, and eight secondary domes. The architectural patterns in the mosque originate from textiles such as carpets. This mosque has over 20,000 hand made tiles and over 50 different tulip designs. With 200 stained glass windows and walls that look like carpets, this space is incredibly impressive. The decoration is geometric and non-representational.
Indian architecture stems from the Muslim capitol established in Delhi, India in the 12th century. Mughal rule is significant in building initiatives including residential and secular buildings. One of the most famous architectural advancements, the Taj Mahal, was built during this time period.
The Taj Mahal was built from 1632-1648 CE and is a white domed marble mausoleum. The Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan was distraught after his wife passed away during childbirth, so he commissioned this building in remembrance of her. The building is seen as an earthly replica of the house of Mumtaz in paradise.
Islamic design in Spain is a fusion of European and Islamic design. Jews, Christians, and Muslims thrived in Islamic Spain. One of the most famous examples of Islamic Spanish architecture is the Great Mosque of Cordoba, known for its prayer hall. It is an example of hypostyle architectural design.
Another great example is the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. It is a large palace and complex fortress built in 1250-1360 CE. The Alhambra features Arabesque design with acanthus leaves and vines. The Alhambra's most notable features are the muquarnas-filled arches and domes found throughout the palace.

Past Examples:

Current Examples:

Extra Credit:
This is a video touring the Alhambra:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MayHnjIw48o
This is a video touring the Great Mosque of Cordoba:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q3etLlvo1v4

Peer Review:

Savannah: Great job explaining the Taj Mahal. I like that you focused more on single buildings than the period as a whole. 

Angie: You did a really nice job explaining the importance of religion on Islamic design. Your blog was easy to read and understand.

Romanesque

The romanesque period can be described as "in the manner of the Romans... style of art that arose in Italy and southern France around 800 AD". Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, was crowned emperor of the Roman Empire in 800 AD. While emperor, Charlemagne encouraged learning of the arts and focused on preserving and copying Roman literature. He established schools and monasteries, as well as, encouraging building using the technology of Roman structures.
Prior to 1000 AD little architecture was built, this was the millennium of the Apocalypse. However, the religious movement was strong and pilgrimages to Christian shrines were popular at this time. There were a minimum of 1,587 churches built between 1000 and 1100 AD.
When looking at Romanesque churches there were many typical features among them. They employed semicircular arches and vaults, took plans from the Early Christian basilica. However, the nave, transept, and apse were modified for better space. They added a side chapel in the transept as well. Structures had vaulting, multiple aisles, and better illumination of the space was provided. The structures were larger for more worshipers, there was space for a choir added, as well as the surrounding area, the ambulatory, for processions. If you take a look at the materials and motifs used, one notable difference is the roof material. Roofs during this period were made of masonry as opposed to wood. Walls were painted with rich greens, blues, purples, and gold. There were rich tapestries and gilded sculptures throughout. Religious items like bibles and chalices were made of gold, silver, and ivory, and set with rubies, emeralds, sapphires, and pearls.
One example of a Romanesque church is Fontenay Abbey in Burgundy, France. St. Bernard established a monastery at Fontenay in 1118. Religious and economic force was great and goods such as wool and iron were produced here. It has an austere appearance and blank walls above the slightly pointed nave arcades.
Another example is the Pisa Baptistery in Pisa, Italy. These plans include three free standing buildings, the cross shaped cathedral, the cylindrical baptistery, and a tall campanile, lovingly referred to as the Leaning Tower of Pisa. All of these buildings were constructed of local marble.
The Cluny Abbey in Burgundy, France is the most famous Abbey of the time. It was constructed during the Benedictine movement and spread Romanesque art around the world.
Ornamentation during this period was very important. Stone carvings became very popular, like the ones at the entrance portal at Vezelay, in carved semicircular stone tympanums. You can see Christ draped in swirling clothing extending his hands to the various groups of people in the world. It was a way to teach the story of Jesus to the illiterate people of the time. The carvings show the rewards of virtue and punishment of vice.
When looking at residential design you will see that homes were primitive and made of wood, mud, twigs, and dirt floors, with little light or warmth. The nobility of the time lived in stone castles that were drafty, wet, and dark. They had a fire in the great hall, however, if there was a fire not many survived due to the wood structure. One example of Romanesque residential design that has survived is the Romanesque house in Cluny, France.

Past Examples:

Current Examples:

Extra Credit:
This is a review of key romanesque architecture:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9pXIw_3FIFg
This is a video on the Leaning Tower of Pisa:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vfh4SIDcE6Q

Peer Review:
Krista: You did a very nice job of giving a short and concise explanation and supporting that with great images.
Lisa: You gave so much information, it was very helpful when trying to understand the period. Good job picking out current examples as well.

Middle Ages: Byzantine

The Byzantine period lasted from 330-1453 C.E. The Byzantine Empire is the longest political entity in European history. It was a secular leadership and associated with the Eastern culture. It was influenced by the Greeks and Orient. Constantinople became the capitol of the Roman empire, which is current day Istanbul. Emperor Justinian came to power in 527 C.E. Christianity liturgy changed from procession of clergy down the nave to the celebration of Mass. The basilica plan changed to a more centralized plan. There was a combination of a dome from the east and the square base of the classical temple of the west. The newest architectural advancement was the domed basilica and pendentives.
The Hagia Sophia is the church of holy wisdom and was designed by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, who were geometricians. It was the main cathedral of Constantinople. It encompasses the idea of east meeting the west. It has a central plan with a circle of windows. The massive dome gives a sense of importance to the exterior. Hollow tiles were used for the dome, which collapsed 2-3 times during construction. The pendentive method of supporting a circular dome on a square base was utilized in the construction.
Byzantine architecture in Ireland utilizes multiple domes, central planning including Greek Cross Plan, round arches and arcades, mosaics- many with gold or lapis backgrounds, alternating stones colors or stone and brick, predominately brick, and pendentives. Impost blocks on columns, vaults, interiors divided into bays, separation of church interiors into church and nave, and romanesque, islamic and gothic architecture all based on byzantine design were also utilized.
Byzantine buildings that remain are churches or temples. Flooring was tiled in marble, and often in geometric designs. The floor tiles are more durable than the wall tiles. Surfaces on walls or ceilings are ornamented including marble, frescos, mosaics, and alabaster.

Past Examples:

Current Examples:

Extra Credit:
This is a video on the Hagia Sophia:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aOExHX45jLQ
This is a simple video explaining the Byzantine Empire:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H_2E0RxVHH4

Peer Reviews:
Katie: I like that you included why the followers of this region were persecuted. It clears up confusion for some people that may have not understood the reasoning. I also like how you included the bit about how many current churches look similar to past ones.
Kiera: I think you did a very nice job of keeping your blog "short and sweet". You included all of the necessary facts of the time period, but kept it easy to read thorough and understand.

Middle Ages: Early Christian

The Early Christian period lasted from 330-800 C.E. Christianity prospered under the persecution and was basically an underground religion. Many adherents to the Christian faith were of the lower class. Christianity promoted access to God through the death and atonement of Jesus Christ which provided great hope especially those in the lower classes.
Emperor Constantine recognized Christianity as a valid religon in 313 C.E. Constantine legalized Christianity though the Edict of Milan. He declared Christianity an official religion with all rights and privileges of other state religions. Christians could now have houses of worship and display holy artifacts. Constantine believed he had received a sign from God before the battle of Milvian Bridge. This sign was a vision of a shield containing a Christian cross. Emperor's had ceased to be considered "divine" and due to this vision, Constantine secured the support of the Christian Church.
Early Christians met in homes or existing buildings. The need for new facilities for worship became necessary, due to the rising number of believers. Roman temples were not constructed to accommodate group worship or taking of the Eucharist, a ceremony reserved for believers. Characteristics of early Christian architecture include:

• centrally planned buildings
• separate baptisteries
• adaptation of Roman basilica form for churches
• separation of interior of churches into nave and flanking aisles
• clerestory windows
• entrance of church opposite apse
• towers flanking exonarthex
• chief goal was to glorify God

A prime example of Early Christian architecture is the Old St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. It was built in 330 C.E. and is the chief monument of Christianity. It is believed to be the tomb or St. Peter the apostle. The exterior is plain while the interior is very elaborate. It is constructed of masonry walls, clerestory windows, wood roof, and wood truss ceilings. The nave was as high as many Gothic cathedrals to come. The total length of the cathedral is 700 feet. The interiors are covered with frescos of biblical accounts from the Old and New Testament.

An example of early Christian architecture in Italy and Spain is Sant' Apllinare In Classe-Ravenna, built in 535-538 C.E. It is defined by geometric volume. There are 24 columns of Greek marble. There is a triumphal arch, semi vaulted apse with mosaics, and mullion windows with three openings. 

There are very few examples of Early Christian furniture still in existence. They were elaborate and richly decorated with carvings and jewels. These furniture pieces follow the roman style. Storage within the church structure was the most important furniture object of this period. 

Paintings, murals, and frescos were very important during this time period. Images portrayed were of Christ the good shepherd, the apostles, and Mary. Motifs of the time included crosses, doves, fish, grapevines, and lambs.

Past Examples:

Current Examples:

Extra Credit:
This is a documentary on the first 1000 years of Christianity:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKOoPcHxPhU
This is a video about early basilicas:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O1HVlFQ-t3M

Peer Review:
Haley: I like how you included how in the beginning of the time period the majority of christians were lower class because they needed the hope of the new religion. I also like how you included the fact that the main goal was to glorify God.
Holli: You did a very nice job of including all of the information in a clear and concise way. I also think you did a good job of choosing past examples that help the reader understand key characteristics.